One of the most confusing aspects of the C programming language is the way in which variable types are declared. These type declarations manage to mystify even experienced programmers. This guide is intended to help in deciphering those declarations, including the new twists introduced by the ANSI Standard. Several examples are given to illustrate the methods, and a short quiz at the end allows you to test yourself on a variety of sample declarations.
Throughout this guide the word "declaration" will be used to refer to a variable declaration statement. The following two statements are both declarations:
static int x; register short y = 0;
A C type declaration can be broken into two distinct parts: a type specifier and a declarator. The type specifier is the easy part: it declares the (optional) storage class (either auto, static, register or extern) and a type (such as int or unsigned char). The declarator is the part that causes confusion, and specifies whether a variable is to be considered a simple type, a pointer, an array, a function, or a combination of these. The identifier, the variable name, is found in the middle of the declarator.
The rules we'll use will allow you to follow a declaration by writing a phrase on a piece of paper at each step in the decoding process. The final result will be a phrase "declare variable-name as . " stating in plain English what exactly is being declared.
The rules may seem confusing, so let's apply them to a few examples:
Example 1: static int *x;
Our starting point is the identifier x. We write "declare x as". We look to the right. Nothing there, goto step 4. We have a pointer descriptor, so we goto step 5. We write "pointer to" and stop since we've reached the start of the declarator. At step 6 we see we have the complete declarator, so we move to step 7 and write "static int" and stop.
The declaration then reads: "declare x as pointer to static int".
Example 2: char *argv[];
Step 1, write "declare argv as". Step 2, array to the right. Step 3, write "array of". Step 4, pointer to the left. Step 5, write "pointer to". Step 6, complete declaration. Step 7, write "char". Stop.
The declaration is: "declare argv as array of pointer to char". Note that it's NOT a pointer to an array of char. Array descriptors have precedence over pointer descriptors and are read first.
Example 3: int (*ptar)[ 10 ];
Step 1, write "declare ptar as". Step 2, parenthesis on the right, goto step 4. Step 5, write "pointer to". Step 6, parenthesized expression, goto step 2. Step 3, write "array 10 of". Step 4, start of declarator on the left, goto step 6. Step 7, write "int". Stop.
The declaration is: "declare ptar as pointer to array 10 of int". Here the parentheses were used to force the pointer descriptor to have precendence over the array descriptor. The array has ten elements.
Step 1, write "declare fp as". Step 2, parenthesis on the right, goto step 4. Step 5, write "pointer to". Step 6, parenthesized expression, goto step 2. Step 3, write "function returning". Step 4, start of declarator on the left, goto step 6. Step 7, write "int". Stop.
The declaration is: "declare fp as pointer to function returning int". Function and array descriptors have the same precendence, so again the parentheses were necessary to force the pointer descriptor to be read first. (Note then that int *fp(); declares fp as a function returning pointer to int.)
Example 5: int *(*list[ MAX ])();
Step 1, the identifier is list (MAX is the array size), write "declare list as". Step 2, array on the right. Step 3, write "array MAX of". Step 4, pointer on the left. Step 5, write "pointer to". Step 6, parenthesized expression, goto step 2. Step 2, function on the right. Step 3, write "function returning". Step 4, pointer on the left. Step 5, write "pointer to". Step 6, complete declarator. Step 7, write "int". Stop.
The declaration is: "declare list as array MAX of pointer to function returning pointer to int". Without the parentheses we would have had an array of functions returning pointers to pointers to int, which is illegal in C because arrays cannot hold functions.
Example 6: char *table[ 10 ][ 20 ];
Step 1, write "declare table as". Step 2, array on right. Step 3, write "array 10 of" followed by "array 20 of". Step 4, pointer on the left. Step 5, write "pointer to". Step 6, complete declaration. Step 7, write "char". Stop.
The declaration is "declare table as array 10 of array 20 of pointer to char".
The important thing to remember while reading these declarations is that functions and arrays are read left-to-right and have precedence over pointers, which are read right-to-left.
The ANSI Standard for C makes a few changes to what a C type declaration can look like. The basic structure of type specifier and declarator remains the same. However, a function designator may now include both the number and the types of parameters the function accepts and pointers may also be modified by the keywords const and volatile.
A further addition is the abstract declarator, used to describe function parameters. An abstract declarator is a declarator minus the identifier. Thus instead of *a[] you could conceivably use *[]. This makes it a bit harder to spot the correct starting position in the declaration. Note that abstract declarators can only be used in certain situations an identifier is a necessary part of most declarations.
The rules given in the previous section need to be amended slightly to handle these new additions, but rather than list them we'll go through a few examples.
Example 7: int func( char *, int );
Step 1, find the identifier, write "declare func as". Step 2, notice the function descriptor to the right, goto step 3. Here we make some changes. Write simply "function". Now shift your attention inside the parentheses making up the function descriptor. These are the types of parameters that the function expects. Each parameter is a declaration in itself, with a type specifier and an abstract declarator. Put aside the current declaration for now, write "(with first parameter of type", and goto step 2 with char * as the new starting point:
| Step 2, nothing on the right, goto step 4. Step 5, write "pointer to". Step 6, end of declaration. Step 7, write "char". Stop. |
Now go on to the second parameter. Write "and with second parameter of type" and goto step 2 with int as the new starting point:
| Step 2, nothing on the left. Step 4, nothing on the right. Step 6, end of declaration. Step 7, write "int". Stop. |
There are no more parameters to be dealt with so we continue with our original declaration, first writing ") returning" and continue where we left off in step 3. Step 4, no pointers on the left. Step 6, end of declaration. Step 7, write "int". Stop.
The complete declaration is "declare func as function (with first parameter of type pointer to char and with second parameter of type int) returning int."
You can (and probably should) ignore the parameters if you wish. This would then give us "declare func as function returning int". All we are doing when declaring the parameters is adding more detail.
Example 8: const int *ptr1;
This case is handled using the old rules to give us "declare ptr1 as a pointer to const int", where const means the the int cannot be modified.
Example 9: int *const ptr2;
This is an example of the new syntax involving const and volatile. Either or both of these two types may be placed after a pointer descriptor to assign those attributes to the pointer itself. Back to the rules: Step 1, start at ptr2, the only choice for identifier since const and volatile are reserved words in ANSI C, write "declare ptr2 as". Step 2, nothing to the right, goto step 4. Step 4, we have a "*" followed by const. This qualifies the pointer descriptor. Step 5, write "const pointer to". Step 6, end of declaration. Step 7, write "int". Stop.
The declaration is: "declare ptr2 as const pointer to int". The distinction to make between this declaration and the one in Example 8 is that the const attribute is associated with the pointer, and not the type specifier. So while the pointer itself cannot be modified, the type it points to can.
The volatile type can also be used in this fashion, either by itself or in combination with const. Write it the same way.
Pointer descriptors do not require either of these attributes, however, so a declaration of the form int **a; is still quite valid.
Obviously, the more information is added to a declaration, the harder it gets to read.
Example 10: extern char *const (*goop( char *b ))( int, long );
Where do we start? There are two identifiers in this declaration, goop and b. Notice, however, that char *b is declaring a function parameter; goop is our starting point. Step 1, write "declare goop as". Step 2, function on the right. Step 3, write "function". Now look inside the function to find any parameters. Write "(with one parameter of type char *". Notice how we ignore the identifier b. Function parameters declared in function prototypes can be declared with abstract or normal declarators; in the latter case the identifier is ignored. Only the typing information counts. (The identifiers are not ignored in ANSI function definitions, but we're declaring a prototype here.)
Now go back to step 3, complete the function and write ") returning". Step 4, a pointer to the left of goop. Step 5, write "pointer to". Step 6, a parenthesized expression, back to step 2. Step 2, function on the right. Step 3, write "function". Now go inside, write "(with first parameter of type int and with second parameter of type long)". End of function, back to step 3 and write "returning". Step 4, pointer (with const) on the left. Step 5, write "const pointer to". Step 6, end of declaration. Step 7, write "extern char". Stop.
The declaration is (take a deep breath): "declare goop as function (with one parameter of type char *) returning pointer to function (with first parameter of type int and second parameter of type long) returning const pointer to extern char." (Whew!)
Or if you choose to ignore the parameters: "declare goop as function returning pointer to function returning const pointer to extern char", which is a bit less intimidating.
One of the harder things to do is to decide what a given set of parentheses imply are we declaring a function or are we simply grouping an expression? The simplest way to differentiate the two is to look at the placement of the type specifiers. If a type specifier immediately follows a left parenthesis, that parenthesis is the start of a function descriptor and the type is part of a function parameter. Empty parentheses also signify a function. Otherwise the parentheses are grouping (perhaps unnecessarily, but it's better to have too many than too few) the expression.
After all this work, have we accomplished anything? You might think that working out those examples step-by-step was overkill. Maybe. But read them over carefully once or twice, work through the following examples, and you won't ever be confused by a C declaration again. Answers can be found below.
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