After reading this article you will learn about:- 1. Concept of Evaluation 2. Definition of Evaluation 3. Characteristics 4. Steps Involved 5. Purposes and Functions 6. Types 7. Need and Importance.
In every walk of life the process of evaluation takes place in one or the other form. If the evaluation process is eliminated from human life then perhaps the aim of life may be lost. It is only through evaluation that one can discriminate between good and bad. The whole cycle of social development revolves around the evaluation process.
In education how much a child has succeeded in his aims, can only be determined through evaluation. Thus there is a close relationship between evaluation and aims.
Education is considered as an investment in human beings in terms of development of human resources, skills, motivation, knowledge and the like. Evaluation helps to build an educational programme, assess its achievements and improve upon its effectiveness.
It serves as an in-built monitor within the programme to review the progress in learning from time to time. It also provides valuable feedback on the design and the implementation of the programme. Thus, evaluation plays a significant role in any educational programme.
Evaluation plays an enormous role in the teaching-learning process. It helps teachers and learners to improve teaching and learning. Evaluation is a continuous process and a periodic exercise.
It helps in forming the values of judgement, educational status, or achievement of student. Evaluation in one form or the other is inevitable in teaching-learning, as in all fields of activity of education judgements need to be made.
In learning, it contributes to formulation of objectives, designing of learning experiences and assessment of learner performance. Besides this, it is very useful to bring improvement in teaching and curriculum. It provides accountability to the society, parents, and to the education system.
Let us discuss its uses briefly:
Evaluation is concerned with assessing the effectiveness of teaching, teaching strategies, methods and techniques. It provides feedback to the teachers about their teaching and the learners about their learning.
(ii) Curriculum:
The improvement in courses/curricula, texts and teaching materials is brought about with the help of evaluation.
(iii) Society:
Evaluation provides accountability to society in terms of the demands and requirements of the employment market.
Evaluation mainly manifests itself in a perceived need for regular reporting to parents.
In brief, evaluation is a very important requirement for the education system. It fulfills various purposes in systems of education like quality control in education, selection/entrance to a higher grade or tertiary level.
It also helps one to take decisions about success in specific future activities and provides guidance to further studies and occupation. Some of the educationists view evaluation virtually synonymous with that of learner appraisal, but evaluation has an expanded role.
It plays an effective role in questioning or challenging the objectives.
A simple representation explaining the role of evaluation in the teaching-learning process is shown below:
Evaluation has its four different aspects namely:
(ii) Learning experiences,
(iii) Learner appraisal and the, and
(iv) Relationship between the three.
The term evaluation conveys several meanings in education and psychology.
Different authors have different notions of evaluation:
1. Encyclopedia of Education Research:
To measure means to observe or determine the magnitude of variate; evaluation means assessment or appraisal.
2. James M. Bradfield:
Evaluation is the assignment of symbols to phenomenon, in order to characterise the worth or value of a phenomenon, usually with reference to some social, cultural or scientific standards.
3. Gronlund and Linn:
Evaluation is a systematic process of collecting, analysing and interpreting information to determine the extent to which pupils are achieving instructional objectives.
Perhaps the most extended definition of evaluation has been supplied by C.E. Beeby (1977), who described evaluation as “the systematic collection and interpretation of evidence leading as a part of process to a judgement of value with a view to action.”
In this definition, there are the following four key elements:
(i) Systematic collection of evidence.
(ii) Its interpretation.
(iii) Judgement of value.
(iv) With a view to action.
Let us discuss the importance of each element in defining evaluation. The first element ‘systematic collection’ implies that whatever information is gathered, should be acquired in a systematic and planned way with some degree of precision.
The second element in Beeby’s definition, ‘interpretation of evidence’, is a critical aspect of the evaluation process. The mere collection of evidence does not by itself constitute evaluation work. The information gathered for the evaluation of an educational programme must be carefully interpreted. Sometimes, un-interpreted evidence is presented to indicate the presence (or absence) of quality in an educational venture.
For example, in a two year programme in computers, it was observed that almost two-third of each entering class failed to complete the two years programme. On closer examination it was found that most of the dropouts after one year were offered good jobs by companies.
The supervisors of companies felt that the one year of training was not only more than adequate for entry and second level positions but provided the foundation for further advancement. Under such circumstances, the dropout rate before programme completion was no indication of programme failure or deficiency.
The third element of Beeby’s definition, ‘judgement of value’, takes evaluation far beyond the level of mere description of what is happening in an educational enterprise, but requires judgements about the worth of an educational endeavour.
Thus, evaluation not only involves gathering and interpreting information about how well an educational programme is succeeding in reaching its goals but judgements about the goals themselves. It involves questions about how well a programme is helping to meet larger educational goals.
The last element of Beeby’s definition, ‘with a view to action’, introduces the distinction between an undertaking that results in a judgement of value with no specific reference to action (conclusion-oriented) and one that is deliberately undertaken for the sake of future action (decision-oriented).
Educational evaluation is clearly decision-oriented and is undertaken with the intention that some action will take place as a result. It is intended to lead to better policies and practices in education.
The analysis of all the above definitions makes us able to draw following characteristics of evaluation:
1. Evaluation implies a systematic process which omits the casual uncontrolled observation of pupils.
2. Evaluation is a continuous process. In an ideal situation, the teaching- learning process on the one hand and the evaluation procedure on the other hand, go together. It is certainly a wrong belief that the evaluation procedure follows the teaching-learning process.
3. Evaluation emphasises the broad personality changes and major objectives of an educational programme. Therefore, it includes not only subject-matter achievements but also attitudes, interests and ideals, ways of thinking, work habits and personal and social adaptability.
4. Evaluation always assumes that educational objectives have previously been identified and defined. This is the reason why teachers are expected not to lose sight of educational objectives while planning and carrying out the teaching-learning process either in the classroom or outside it.
5. A comprehensive programme of evaluation involves the use of many procedures (for example, analytico-synthetic, heuristic, experimental, lecture, etc.); a great variety of tests (for example, essay type, objective type, etc.); and other necessary techniques (for example, socio-metric, controlled-observation techniques, etc.).
6. Learning is more important than teaching. Teaching has no value if it does not result in learning on the part of the pupils.
7. Objectives and accordingly learning experiences should be so relevant that ultimately they should direct the pupils towards the accomplishment of educational goals.
8. To assess the students and their complete development brought about through education is evaluation.
9. Evaluation is the determination of the congruence between the performance and objectives.
Following are the few steps involved in the process of evaluation:
In the evaluation process first step is to determine what to evaluation, i.e., to set down educational objectives. What kind of abilities and skills should be developed when a pupil studies, say, Mathematics, for one year? What type of understanding should be developed in the pupil who learns his mother tongue? Unless the teacher identifies and states the objectives, these questions will remain unanswered.
The process of identifying and defining educational objectives is a complex one; there is no simple or single procedure which suits all teachers. Some prefer to begin with the course content, some with general aims, and some with lists of objectives suggested by curriculum experts in the area.
While stating the objectives, therefore, we can successfully focus our attention on the product i.e., the pupil’s behaviour, at the end of a course of study and state it in terms of his knowledge, understanding, skill, application, attitudes, interests, appreciation, etc.
It has been said that learning is the modification of behaviour in a desirable direction. The teacher is more concerned with a student’s learning than with anything else. Changes in behaviour are an indication of learning. These changes, arising out of classroom instruction, are known as the learning outcome.
What type of learning outcome is expected from a student after he has undergone the teaching-learning process is the first and foremost concern of the teacher. This is possible only when the teacher identifies and defines the objectives in terms of behavioural changes, i.e., learning outcomes.
These specific objectives will provide direction to teaching-learning process. Not only that it will also be useful in planning and organising the learning activities, and in planning and organising evaluation procedures too.
Thus, specific objectives determine two things; one, the various types of learning situations to be provided by the class teacher 10 his pupils and second, the method to be employed to evaluate both—the objectives and the learning experiences.
The next step in the process of evaluation is to select teaching points through which the objectives can be realised. Once the objectives are set up, the next step is to decide the content (curriculum, syllabus, course) to help in the realisation of objectives.
For the teachers, the objectives and courses of school subjects are ready at hand. His job is to analyse the content of the subject matter into teaching points and to find out what specific objectives can be adequately realised through the introduction of those teaching points.
In the fourth step, the teacher will have to plan the learning activities to be provided to the pupils and, at the same time, bear two things in mind—the objectives as well as teaching points. The process then becomes three dimensional, the three co-ordinates being objectives, teaching points and learning activities. The teacher gets the objectives and content readymade.
He is completely free to select the type of learning activities. He may employ the analytico-synthetic method; he may utilise the inducto-deductive reasoning; he may employ the experimental method or a demonstration method; or he may put a pupil in the position of a discoverer; he may employ the lecture method; or he may ask the pupils to divide into groups and to do a sort of group work followed by a general discussion; and so on. One thing he has to remember is that he should select only such activities as will make it possible for him to realise his objectives.
In the fifth step, the teacher observes and measures the changes in the behaviour of his pupils through testing. This step adds one more dimension to the evaluation process. While testing, he will keep in mind three things-objectives, teaching points and learning activities; but his focus will be on the attainment of objectives. This he cannot do without enlisting the teaching points and planning learning activities of his pupils.
Here the teacher will construct a test by making the maximum use of the teaching points already introduced in the class and the learning experiences already acquired by his pupils. He may plan for an oral lest or a written test; he may administer an essay type test or an objective type of lest; or he may arrange a practical test.
The last, but not the least, important step in the evaluation process is the use of results as feedback. If the teacher, after testing his pupils, finds that the objectives have not been realised to a great extent, he will use the results in reconsidering the objectives and in organising the learning activities.
He will retrace his steps to find out the drawbacks in the objectives or in the learning activities he has provided for his students. This is known as feedback. Whatever results the teacher gets after testing his pupils should be utilised for the betterment of the students.
Evaluation plays a vital role in teaching learning experiences. It is an integral part of the instructional programmes. It provides information’s on the basis of which many educational decisions are taken. We are to stick to the basic function of evaluation which is required to be practiced for pupil and his learning processes.
Evaluation has the following functions:
a. Evaluation helps to study the entry behaviour of the children in all respects.
b. That helps to undertake special instructional programmes.
c. To provide for individualisation of instruction.
d. It also helps to select pupils for higher studies, for different vocations and specialised courses.
a. A planned evaluation helps a teacher in deciding and developing the ways, methods, techniques of teaching.
b. Helps to formulate and reformulate suitable and realistic objectives of instruction.
c. Which helps to improve instruction and to plan appropriate and adequate techniques of instruction.
d. And also helps in the improvement of curriculum.
e. To assess different educational practices.
f. Ascertains how far could learning objectives be achieved.
g. To improve instructional procedures and quality of teachers.
h. To plan appropriate and adequate learning strategies.
a. Evaluation has to diagnose the weak points in the school programme as well as weakness of the students.
b. To suggest relevant remedial programmes.
c. The aptitude, interest and intelligence are also to be recognised in each individual child so that he may be energised towards a right direction.
d. To adopt instruction to the different needs of the pupils.
e. To evaluate the progress of these weak students in terms of their capacity, ability and goal.
a. To discover potential abilities and aptitudes among the learners.
b. Thus to predict the future success of the children.
c. And also helps the child in selecting the right electives.
a. To adopt better educational policy and decision making.
b. Helps to classify pupils in different convenient groups.
c. To promote students to next higher class,
d. To appraise the supervisory practices.
e. To have appropriate placement.
f. To draw comparative statement on the performance of different children.
g. To have sound planning.
h. Helps to test the efficiency of teachers in providing suitable learning experiences.
i. To mobilise public opinion and to improve public relations.
j. Helps in developing a comprehensive criterion tests.
a. Assists a person in making decisions about courses and careers.
b. Enables a learner to know his pace of learning and lapses in his learning.
c. Helps a teacher to know the children in details and to provide necessary educational, vocational and personal guidance.
a. To motivate, to direct, to inspire and to involve the students in learning.
b. To reward their learning and thus to motivate them towards study.
a. Gives reinforcement and feedback to teacher, students and the teaching learning processes.
b. Assists in the modification and improvement of the teaching strategies and learning experiences.
c. Helps in the achievement of educational objectives and goals.
a. Helps to provide data for research generalisation.
b. Evaluation clears the doubts for further studies and researches.
c. Helps to promote action research in education.
a. To communicate the results of progress to the students.
b. To intimate the results of progress to parents.
c. To circulate the results of progress to other schools.
Evaluation can be classified into different categories in many ways.
Some important classifications are as follows:
Placement evaluation is designed to place the right person in the right place. It ensures the entry performance of the pupil. The future success of the instructional process depends on the success of placement evaluation.
Placement evaluation aims at evaluating the pupil’s entry behaviour in a sequence of instruction. In other words the main goal of such evaluation is to determine the level or position of the child in the instructional sequence.
We have a planned scheme of instruction for classroom which is supposed to bring a change in pupil’s behaviour in an orderly manner. Then we prepare or place the students for planned instruction for their better prospects.
When a pupil is to undertake a new instruction, it is essential to know the answer of the following questions:
a. Does the pupil possess required knowledge and skills for the instruction?
b. Whether the pupil has already mastered some of the instructional objectives or not?
c. Whether the mode of instruction is suitable to pupil’s interests, work habits and personal characteristics?
We get the answer to all the probable questions by using a variety of tests, self report inventories, observational techniques, case study, attitude test and achievement tests.
Sometimes past experiences, which inspire for present learning also lead to the further placement in a better position or admission. This type of evaluation is helpful for admission of pupils into a new course of instruction.
i. Aptitude test
ii. Self-reporting inventories
iii. Observational techniques
iv. Medical entrance exam.
v. Engineering or Agriculture entrance exam.
Formative evaluation is used to monitor the learning progress of students during the period of instruction. Its main objective is to provide continuous feedback to both teacher and student concerning learning successes and failures while instruction is in process.
Feedback to students provides reinforcement of successful learning and identifies the specific learning errors that need correction. Feedback to teacher provides information for modifying instruction and for prescribing group and individual remedial work.
Formative evaluation helps a teacher to ascertain the pupil-progress from time to time. At the end of a topic or unit or segment or a chapter the teacher can evaluate the learning outcomes basing on which he can modify his methods, techniques and devices of teaching to provide better learning experiences.
The teacher can even modify the instructional objectives, if necessary. In other words, formative evaluation provides feedback to the teacher. The teacher can know which aspects of the learning task were mastered and which aspects were poorly or not at all mastered by pupils. Formative evaluation helps the teacher to assess the relevance and appropriateness of the learning experiences provided and to assess instantly how far the goals are being fulfilled.
Thus, it aims at improvement of instruction. Formative evaluation also provides feedback to pupils. The pupil knows his learning progress from time to time. Thus, formative evaluation motivates the pupils for better learning. As such, it helps the teacher to take appropriate remedial measures. “The idea of generating information to be used for revising or improving educational practices is the core concept of formative evaluation.”
It is concerned with the process of development of learning. In the sense, evaluation is concerned not only with the appraisal of the achievement but also with its improvement. Education is a continuous process.
Therefore, evaluation and development must go hand in hand. The evaluation has to take place in every possible situation or activity and throughout the period of formal education of a pupil.
Cronback is the first educationist, who gave the best argument for formative evaluation. According to him, the greatest service evaluation can perform is to identify aspects of the course where education is desirable. Thus, this type of evaluation is an essential tool to provide feedback to the learners for improvement of their self-learning and to the teachers for improvement of their methodologies of teaching, nature of instructional materials, etc.
It is a positive evaluation because of its attempt to create desirable learning goals and tools for achieving such goals. Formative evaluation is generally concerned with the internal agent of evaluation, like participation of the learner in the learning process.
The functions of formation evaluation are:
(a) Diagnosing:
Diagnosing is concerned with determining the most appropriate method or instructional materials conducive to learning.
(b) Placement:
Placement is concerned with the finding out the position of an individual in the curriculum from which he has to start learning.
(c) Monitoring:
Monitoring is concerned with keeping track of the day-to- day progress of the learners and to point out changes necessary in the methods of teaching, instructional strategies, etc.
Characteristics of Formative Evaluation:
The characteristics of formative evaluation are as follows:
a. It is an integral part of the learning process.
b. It occurs, frequently, during the course of instruction.
c. Its results are made immediately known to the learners.
d. It may sometime take form of teacher observation only.
e. It reinforces learning of the students.
f. It pinpoints difficulties being faced by a weak learner.
g. Its results cannot be used for grading or placement purposes.
h. It helps in modification of instructional strategies including method of teaching, immediately.
i. It motivates learners, as it provides them with knowledge of progress made by them.
j. It sees role of evaluation as a process.
k. It is generally a teacher-made test.
l. It does not take much time to be constructed.
i. Monthly tests.
iii. Periodical assessment.
iv. Teacher’s observation, etc.
It is concerned with identifying the learning difficulties or weakness of pupils during instruction. It tries to locate or discover the specific area of weakness of a pupil in a given course of instruction and also tries to provide remedial measure.
N.E. Gronlund says “…… formative evaluation provides first-aid treatment for simple learning problems whereas diagnostic evaluation searches for the underlying causes of those problems that do not respond to first-aid treatment.”
When the teacher finds that inspite of the use of various alternative methods, techniques and corrective prescriptions the child still faces learning difficulties, he takes recourse to a detailed diagnosis through specifically designed tests called ‘diagnostic tests’.
Diagnosis can be made by employing observational techniques, too. In case of necessity the services of psychological and medical specialists can be utilised for diagnosing serious learning handicaps.
Summative evaluation is done at the end of a course of instruction to know to what extent the objectives previously fixed have been accomplished. In other words, it is the evaluation of pupils’ achievement at the end of a course.
The main objective of the summative evaluation is to assign grades to the pupils. It indicates the degree to which the students have mastered the course content. It helps to judge the appropriateness of instructional objectives. Summative evaluation is generally the work of standardised tests.
It tries to compare one course with another. The approaches of summative evaluation imply some sort of final comparison of one item or criteria against another. It has the danger of making negative effects.
This evaluation may brand a student as a failed candidate, and thus causes frustration and setback in the learning process of the candidate, which is an example of the negative effect.
The traditional examinations are generally summative evaluation tools. Tests for formative evaluation are given at regular and frequent intervals during a course; whereas tests for summative evaluation are given at the end of a course or at the end of a fairly long period (say, a semester).
The functions of this type of evaluation are:
(a) Crediting:
Crediting is concerned with collecting evidence that a learner has achieved some instructional goals in contents in respect to a defined curricular programme.
(b) Certifying:
Certifying is concerned with giving evidence that the learner is able to perform a job according to the previously determined standards.
(c) Promoting:
It is concerned with promoting pupils to next higher class.
(d) Selecting:
Selecting the pupils for different courses after completion of a particular course structure.
Characteristics of Summative Evaluation:
a. It is terminal in nature as it comes at the end of a course of instruction (or a programme).
b. It is judgemental in character in the sense that it judges the achievement of pupils.
c. It views evaluation “as a product”, because its chief concern is to point out the levels of attainment.
d. It cannot be based on teachers observations only.
e. It does not pin-point difficulties faced by the learner.
f. Its results can be used for placement or grading purposes.
g. It reinforces learning of the students who has learnt an area.
h. It may or may not motivate a learner. Sometimes, it may have negative effect.
1. Traditional school and university examination,
2. Teacher-made tests,
3. Standardised tests,
4. Practical and oral tests, and
5. Rating scales, etc.
Two alternative approaches to educational testing that must be thoroughly understood are norm-referenced testing and criterion-referenced testing. Although there are similarities between these two approaches to testing, there are also fundamental differences between norm and criterion referenced testing.
There have been disputations about the relative virtues of norm and criterion-referenced measurements for a long time. However, a fundamental fact is recognised by most of concerned people that norm-referenced and criterion-referenced testing are complementary approaches.
(i) Criterion-Referenced Evaluation:
When the evaluation is concerned with the performance of the individual in terms of what he can do or the behaviour he can demonstrate, is termed as criterion- referenced evaluation. In this evaluation there is a reference to a criterion.
But there is no reference to the performance of other individuals in the group. In it we refer an individual’s performance to a predetermined criterion which is well defined.
(i) Raman got 93 marks in a test of Mathematics.
(ii) A typist types 60 words per minute.
(iii) Amit’s score in a reading test is 70.
A simple working definition:
A criterion-referenced test is used to ascertain an individual’s status with respect to a defined achievement domain.
In the above examples there is no reference to the performance of other members of the group. Thus criterion-referenced evaluation determines an individual’s status with reference to well defined criterion behaviour.
It is an attempt to interpret test results in terms of clearly defined learning outcomes which serve as referents (criteria). Success of criterion-reference test lies in the delineation of all defined levels of achievement which are usually specified in terms of behaviourally stated instructional objectives.
The purpose of criterion-referenced evaluation/test is to assess the objectives. It is the objective based test. The objectives are assessed, in terms of behavioural changes among the students.
Such type of test assesses the ability of the learner in relation to the criterion behaviour. Glasar (1963) first used this term, ‘Criterion-reference test’ to describe the learner’s achievement on a performance continuum.
Hively and Millman (1974) suggested a new term, ‘domain-referenced test’ and to them the word ‘domain’ has a wider connotation. A criterion referenced test can measure one or more assessment domain.
(ii) Norm Referenced Evaluation:
Norm-referenced evaluation is the traditional class-based assignment of numerals to the attribute being measured. It means that the measurement act relates to some norm, group or a typical performance.
It is an attempt to interpret the test results in terms of the performance of a certain group. This group is a norm group because it serves as a referent of norm for making judgements.
Test scores are neither interpreted in terms of an individual (self-referenced) nor in terms of a standard of performance or a pre-determined acceptable level of achievement called the criterion behaviour (criterion-referenced). The measurement is made in terms of a class or any other norm group.
Almost all our classroom tests, public examinations and standardised tests are norm-referenced as they are interpreted in terms of a particular class and judgements are formed with reference to the class.
(i) Raman stood first in Mathematics test in his class.
(ii) The typist who types 60 words per minute stands above 90 percent of the typists who appeared the interview.
(iii) Amit surpasses 65% of students of his class in reading test.
A simple working definition:
A norm-referenced test is used to ascertain an individual’s status with respect to the performance of other individuals on that test.
In the above examples, the person’s performance is compared to others of their group and the relative standing position of the person in his/her group is mentioned. We compare an individual’s performance with similar information about the performance of others.
That is why selection decisions always depend on norm- referenced judgements. A major requirement of norm-referenced judgements is that individuals being measured and individuals forming the group or norm, are alike. In norm-referenced tests very easy and very difficult items are discarded and items of medium difficulty are preferred because our aim is to study relative achievement.
Now a days, education has multifold programmes and activities to inculcate in students a sense of common values, integrated approach, group feelings, community interrelationship leading to national integration and knowledge to adjust in different situations.
Evaluation in education assesses the effectiveness of worth of an educational experience which is measured against instructional objectives.
Evaluation is done to fulfill the following needs:
1. (a) It helps a teacher to know his pupils in details. Today, education is child-centered. So, child’s abilities, interest, aptitude, attitude etc., are to be properly studied so as to arrange instruction accordingly.
(b) It helps the teacher to determine, evaluate and refine his instructional techniques.
(c) It helps him in setting, refining and clarifying the objectives.
(d) It helps him to know the entry behaviour of the students.
2. It helps an administrator.
(a) In educational planning and
(b) In educational decisions on selections, classification and placement.
3. Education is a complex process. Thus, there is a great need of continuous evaluation of its processes and products. It helps to design better educational programmes.
4. The parents are eager to know about the educational progress of their children and evaluation alone can assess the pupils’ progress from time to time.
5. A sound choice of objectives depends on an accurate information regarding pupil’s abilities, interest, attitude and personality traits and such information is obtained through evaluation.
6. Evaluation helps us to know whether the instructional objectives have been achieved or not. As such evaluation helps planning of better strategies for education.
7. A sound programme of evaluation clarifies the aims of education and it helps us to know whether aims and objectives are attainable or not. As such, it helps in reformulation of aims and objectives.
8. Evaluation studies the ‘total child’ and thus helps us to undertake special instructional programmes like enrichment programme, for the bright and remedial programmes for the backward.
9. It helps a student in encouraging good study habits, in increasing motivation and in developing abilities and skills, in knowing the results of progress and in getting appropriate feedback.
10. It helps us to undertake appropriate guidance services.
From the above discussions it is quite evident that evaluation is quite essential for promoting pupil growth. It is equally helpful lo parents, teachers, administrators and students.
